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The mask is an object worn over or in front of the face to hide the identity of a person and by its own features to establish another being. This essential characteristic of hiding and revealing personalities or moods is common to all masks. As cultural objects they have been used throughout the world in all periods and have been as varied in appearance as in their use and symbolism.
Masks have been designed in innumerable varieties, from the simplest of crude "False Faces" held by a handle to complete head coverings with ingenious movable parts and hidden faces. Among the substances utilized are woods, metals, shells, fibbers, ivory, clay, horn, stone, feathers, leather, furs, paper, cloth, and cornhusks. With few exceptions, the morphological elements of the mask derive from natural forms. Masks with human features are classified as anthropomorphic and those with animal characteristics as theriomorphic. Masks usually represent supernatural beings, ancestors, and fanciful or imagined figures, and can also be portraits
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The Wearing of Masks
The wearer of a mask is considered to be in direct association with the spirit force of the mask and is consequently exposed to personal danger of being affected by it. For his protection, the wearer is required to follow certain sanctioned procedures in his use of the mask. He plays the role of an actor in cooperation or collaboration with the mask. Without his performing dance and posturing routines, which are often accompanied with music, the mask would remain a representation without a full life force. After putting on the mask, the wearer undergoes a psychic change and as in a trance assumes the spirit character depicted by the mask.
There could be mentioned many examples from different civilizations where a variety of masks were used for social and religious reasons through centuries. However we will significantly mention the following.
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Theatrical Masks
Masks have been used almost universally to represent characters in theatrical performances. The mask as a dramatic device first emerged in Western Civilization from the religious practices of Ancient Greece. In the worship of Dionysus, god of fertility and the harvest, the communicants' attempt to impersonate the divinity by donning goatskins and by imbibing wine eventually developed into the sophistication of masking. When a literature of worship appeared, a disguise, which consisted of a white linen mask hung over the face (a device supposedly initiated by Thespis, a 6th-century-BC poet who is credited with originating tragedy), enabled the leaders of the ceremony to make the god manifest. Thus symbolically identified, the communicant was inspired to speak in the first person, thereby giving birth to the art of drama.
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ANCIENT GREECE
Greek Tragedy mask
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In Ancient Greece the progress from ritual to ritual-drama was continued in highly formalized theatrical representations (5th century BC). Heavily coiffured and of a size to enlarge the actor's presence, the Greek mask seems to have been designed to throw the voice by means of a built-in megaphone device and, by exaggeration of the features, to make clear at a distance the precise nature of the character. Moreover, their use made it possible for the Greek actors-who were limited by convention to three speakers for each tragedy-to impersonate a number of different characters during the play simply by changing masks and costumes.
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MIDDLE AGES
HANNYA Demon mask – Japanese Noh-Kyogen
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In the Middle Ages, masks were used in the mystery plays of the 12th to the 16th century. In plays dramatizing portions of the Old and New Testaments, grotesques of all sorts, such as devils, demons, dragons, and personifications of the seven deadly sins, were brought to stage life by the use of masks.
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RENAISSANCE
ARLECCHINO – Commedia dell’ Arte
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The 15th-century Renaissance in Italy witnessed the rise of a theatrical phenomenon that spread rapidly to France, to Germany, and to England, where it maintained its popularity into the 18th century. Comedies improvised from scenarios based upon the domestic dramas of the ancient Roman comic playwrights “Plautus” (254 -184 BC) and Terence (186/185-159 BC) and upon situations drawn from anonymous ancient Roman mimes flourished under the title of Commedia dell' Arte. Adopting the Roman stock figures and situations to their own usage's, the players of the Commedia were usually masked. Excellent pictorial records of both commedia costumes and masks exist; some sketches show the characters of “Arlecchino” and “Colombina” wearing black masks covering merely the eyes, from which the later masquerade mask is certainly a development.
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Masks and Death
In cultures in which burial customs are important, anthropomorphic masks have often been used in ceremonies associated with the dead and departing spirits. Funerary masks were used to cover the face of the deceased. Their purpose was to represent the features of the deceased, both to honour them and to establish a relationship through the mask with the spirit world. Sometimes they were used to force the spirit of the newly dead to depart for the spirit world and to protect the deceased by frightening away malevolent spirits.
Among Oceanic peoples, North American Indians, and various tribes of Africa, certain times of the year are set-aside to honour spirits or ancestors. Masked rituals act as an important link between past and present, giving a sense of historic continuity that strengthens their social bond. On these occasions, masks that are recognizable as dead chieftains, relatives, friends, or even enemies are worn or exhibited during the ceremonies that are related with the dead or the departed spirits.
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EGYPT
Pharaoh Tutankhamen
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From the Middle Kingdom (c. 2040-1786 BC) to the 1st century AD, the ancient Egyptians placed stylized masks with generalized features on the faces of their dead. The funerary mask served to guide the spirit of the deceased back to its final resting place in the body. They were made of cloth covered with stucco or plaster, which was then painted. For more important personages, silver and gold were used. Among the most splendid examples of the burial portrait mask is the one created for the pharaoh “Tutankhamen”(c. 1350 BC).
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ANCIENT GREECE
Agamemnon
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In Mycenaean tombs of c. 1400 BC, beaten gold portrait masks were found. The characteristic of the faces weren’t given realistically but they tried to show the age and the personality. All masks were male with closed eyes. A great sample of the Mycenae Civilization is the funerary gold mask of “Agamemnon”(1580-1500 B.C.)
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ASIA
Thai Khon mask
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Gold masks were also placed on the faces of the dead kings of Cambodia and Siam in Southeast of Asia.
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SOUTH AMERICA
Inca mask
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In South America, the mummies of Inca royalty wore golden masks. The mummies of lesser personages had masks that were made of wood or clay. Some of these ancient Andean masks had movable parts, such as the metallic death mask with movable ears that was found in the Moon Pyramid at Moche, Peru (300-400A.D.).
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ANCIENT ROME
Roman mask
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In Ancient Roman burials, a mask resembling the deceased was often placed over his face or was worn by an actor hired to accompany the funerary cortege to the burial site. In patrician families these masks or imagines were sometimes preserved as ancestor portraits and were displayed on ceremonial occasions. Such masks were usually modelled over the features of the dead and cast in wax.
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EUROPE
Death mask of Dante Alighieri, Italian poet, 1265-1321
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This technique was revived in the making of portrait masks for the royalty and nobility of Europe from the late Middle Ages through the 18th century. From the 17th century to the 20th, death masks of famous persons became widespread among European peoples. With wax or liquid plaster of paris, a negative cast of the human face could be produced that in turn acted as a mould for the positive image. That was the way to make copies.
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Other Ritual Uses
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MASKS USED AGAINST DISEASES
North American Indian ‘False Face’ mask
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Masks have played an important part in magical-religious rites to prevent and to cure disease. In some cultures, the masked members of secret societies could drive disease demons from entire villages and tribes. The best known of these groups was the “False Face Society” of the North American Iroquois Indians. These professional healers performed violent pantomimes to exorcise the dreaded “Gahadogoka gogosa” (demons who plagued the Iroquois). They wore grimacing, twisted masks with long wigs of horsehair. Metallic inserts were used around the eyes to catch the light of the campfire and the moon, emphasizing the grotesqueness of the mask. Other masks for protection from disease include the measle masks worn by Chinese children and the cholera masks worn during epidemics by the Chinese and Burmese. The disease mask is developed among the Sinhalese in Sri Lanka (Ceylon), where 19 distinct “rakasa”, or disease devil masks, have been devised. These masks are of ferocious aspect, fanged, and with startling eyes. Gaudily coloured and sometimes having articulating jaws, they present a dragon-like appearance.
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HUNTING MASKS
Siberian shaman mask
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Disguise masks were used in the early Stone Age in stalking prey and later to house the slain animal's spirit in the hope of placating it. The traditional animal masks worn by the “Altaic” and “Tungusic” shamans in Siberia are strictly close to such prehistoric examples as the image of the so–called wizard in the Cave of Les Trois Frères in Ariège, France.
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FERTILITY MASKS
North American tribal mask
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The most renowned of the masked fertility rites are those still performed by the “Hopi” and “Zuni” tribes of the Southwest U.S. Together with masked dancers representing clouds, rain spirits, stars, Earth Mother, sky god, and others, the shaman takes part in elaborate ceremonies designed to assure crop fertility. In western Sudan in Africa, many tribes have masked fertility ceremonials. The “Segoni-kun” masks that are fashioned by the “Bambara” tribes in Mali are aesthetically most interesting.
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INITIATION RITE TO MANHOOD
African mask
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In western and central Democratic Republic of Congo in Africa, large, colourful helmet-like masks are used as a masquerading device when the youth emerges from the initiation area and is introduced to the villagers as an adult of the tribe. After a lengthy ordeal of teaching and initiation rites, for instance, a youth of the “Pende” tribe appears in a distinctive colourful mask indicative of his new role as an adult. The mask is later cast aside and replaced by a small ivory duplicate, worn as a charm against misfortune and as a symbol of his manhood.
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Masks Today
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JAPAN
Japanese No mask
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The “No” drama of Japan has remained a significant part of national life since its beginnings in the 14th century. “No” masks, of which there are about 125 named varieties, are rigidly traditional and are classified into five general types: old persons (male and female), gods, goddesses, devils, and goblins. The material is wood with a coating of plaster, which is lacquered and gilded. Colours are traditional. White is used to characterize a corrupt ruler; red signifies a righteous man; the villain, who epitomizes violence and brutality, wears a black mask. “No” masks are highly stylized and generally characterized. They are exquisitly carved by highly respected artists known as “tenka-ichi”, "the first under heaven." Shades of feeling are portrayed with beautifully sublimated realism. When the masks are subtly moved by the player's hand or body motion, their expression appears to change.
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TIBET
Tibetan drama mask
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In Tibet, sacred dramas are still performed by masked lay actors. A play for exorcising demons called the "Dance of the Red Tiger Devil" is performed at fixed seasons of the year exclusively by the priests or lamas wearing awe-inspiring masks of deities and demons. Masks employed in this mystery play are made of papier-mâché, cloth, and occasionally gilt copper.
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INDIA, BHUTAN
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In the Indian state of Sikkim (Northeast of India) and in Bhutan, where wood is abundant and the damp climate is destructive to paper, they are carved of durable wood. All masks of the Himalayan peoples are fantastically painted and are usually provided with wigs of “yak” tail in various colours.
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INDONESIA
Indonesian Tupeng mask
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On the Indonesian islands ofJava and Bali, the wooden masks, “tupeng”, are used in certain theatrical performances called “wayang wong”. These dance dramas developed from the shadow puppet plays of the 18th century and are performed not only as amusement but also as a safeguard against calamities. The stories are in part derived from ancient Sanskrit literature, especially the Hindu epics.
The brightly painted masks are made of wood and leather and are often fitted with horsehair and metallic or gilded paper accoutrements. They are ordinarily held in the teeth by means of a strap of leather or rattan that has been fastened across the inside. Occasionally an actor interrupts the unseen narrator, the ”Dalang”, who is speaking the play. The mask is then held in front of the face while the player says his line. The use of theatrical masks in the non-Muslim societies of Java and Bali is significant, since masks, being forbidden under the prohibition of images, are practically unknown in the rest of Indonesia, as in all the Islamic world.
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Festival Masks
Masks for festive occasions are still commonly used today. Absurd, grotesque, or superficially horrible, festival masks are usually conducive to good-natured license, release from inhibitions, and ribaldry. These include the “Halloween” (England), “Mardi Gras” (France), or "masked ball" variety. The disguise is assumed to create a momentary, amusing character, often resulting in humorous confusions, or to achieve anonymity for the joker or ribald reveller. Throughout contemporary Europe and Latin America, masks are associated with folk festivals, especially those generated by seasonal changes or marking the beginning and end of the year. Among the most famous of the folk masks are the masks worn to symbolize the driving away of winter in parts of Austria and Switzerland. In Mexico and Guatemala, annual folk festivals employ masks for storytelling and caricature, such as for the “Dance of the Old Men” and the “Dance of the Moors” and the “Christians”. The Eskimo make masks with comic or satiric features that are worn at festivals of merrymaking, as do the members of the” Ibos” tribe of Nigeria.
Examples of festival masks:
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Mexican Festival Mask |
 
American Halloween masks |
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